1.0 Introduction
Foreign Policy could be defined as the strategies that states are going to used as guidance to their action in the international arena, that comprise of its political, economic, military, and cultural policies reflected externally to the international arena through diplomatic and governmental machinery. Its main function is to defend and promoting the country's national security, economic and other vital national interests. Foreign policies formed are usually affected by individual decision makers, local political, economical and social factors. The foreign policy of a nation has never remain the same over a period of time in history. This is mainly due to the reason of the changing perception of individual policy makers with regard to geopolitical and economic components affecting foreign policy are continually changing.
The nature of Malaysia[1] foreign policy is determined by the various geographical, historical, social and political determinants, which the main national interest of Malaysia is security, economy, internal security and sovereignty. Malaysia foreign policy begins from the day we gain independence. During that time our late Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman[2], established close relationship with the west that have close ties with the commonwealth[3] countries and Britain[4]. Never fail to mention that Tunku Abdul Rahman policy was also anti-communist, where Malaysia during that time does not recognized the People Republic of China[5], and supported the South Vietnamese pro-democracy fraction during the Vietnam War[6]. Later, Malaysia foreign policy had change from pro-west foreign policy to non-alignment, neutralization and peaceful co-existence, after the Indonesia confrontation. Malaysia and other South East Asia countries in the region had set up ASEAN[7], mainly to ensure peace and security in the region and to promote the economic growth of its member countries. During the era of Mahathir premiership, Malaysia foreign policy had undergone a huge and dramatic change from the normal discourse of Malaysia Foreign Policy. Malaysia as an actor in the international arena had become more vocal in issues concerning third world nations. A number of policies were implemented for example Buy British Last Policy, Look East Policy, Third World Spokemanship in Non alignment Movement (NAM)[8], Regional Engagement in ASEAN, Islamic Posturing and Commercial and Development Policy. In this assignment we will discuss all these policy and study how does it departure from normal course of Malaysian Foreign Policy alignment.
2.0 Contradictions in Foreign Policy
During Malayan Independence from the British in the year of 1957, Malaya by that time had only one division of the Malay Royal Regiment, Malaya defence during that time of period does not posses any air force and navy which gave the reason why Tunku Abdul Rahman foreign policy have to be pro-west to secure Malaya national security from external threat during that time of period. Malaya had signed the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement of the year 1957 in which both nation agree to provide military assistant to assists each another when there is an arm conflict. This was stated in the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement 1957[9].
Beside from national security, Malaya economy at that time also link very closely with the British, the Malaya economy during that period of time was a primary commodity product country that export raw material for example tin and rubber which was mainly owned and control by foreign British investor. In which as recorded by Tilman in Malaysian Foreign Policy
“At present all the tin dredges, three-quarters of the large rubber estates, almost all the new oil palm estates. Possible two-thirds of Malaysian foreign trade, and much of the secondary industries are in overseas, mainly British, ownership and control.”
Not forget to mention Malaya internal security during that period of time was also facing the threat of communist insurgency under the Malayan Communist Party. Malaya depends on British, Australia and New Zealand troops in countering the communist insurgency. This factor had formulated the Tunku anti-communist policy. Malaysia foreign policy of pro-west and and anti communist started to change after the confrontation following with event such as the expelling of Singapore from Malaysia where British is not consulted. British could no longer support their military presence in Malaysia and started to withdraw at 1971. as noted by J. Saravanamuttu[10]. All these string of event had caused Malaysian not to depend heavily on the west on Malaysia national security, giving way to Malaysia non align, and neutrality policy. Malaysia before the Mahathir period, all foreign policy will have certain kind of influences from the bureaucracies concerning issue of internal social security, external threat, economic[11].
All this have changed during the Tun Dr Mahathir period, Mahathir idiosyncrasies [12]plays an important role in forming the foreign policy of Malaysia, and these policy had distinguish Dr. Mahathir’s Prime Ministership from previous administrations. First of all it’s the Buy British Last policy, which he implemented after two months coming into office, this policy seems a radical change of Malaysian foreign policy, even during the time of non-align, Malaysia depended heavily on the west. This could be explaining by a variety of factors. First, we have to examine and study about Mahathir idiosyncrasies which play the important role in directing Malaysian foreign policy. He had not being educated in British like his predecessors, and perceived Britain as a colonial power. He was also a man that posses Malay and Malaysian nationalism, which would like to reduce British enterprise in Malaysia, and scale back Malay-Chinese joint venture company, implementing the New Economic Policy(NEP)[13]. Beside that external event for example in June 1981, London Metal Exchange changes the rules that cause Malaysia effort to increase the price of tin in the world market to be in vain. Beside that the selling of Guthrie and Dunlop shares to the Multi-Purpose Holdings which was an investment firm of the Chinese based MCA party without the knowledge of the government directly opposing the plan of Mahathir to increase Malay equity under the NEP. This had prompt Mahathir to initiate Buy British Last Policy. Mahathir had never consulted the foreign affair bureaucracies on the Buy British Last Policy[14].
Beside from that Mahathir had proclaimed the Look East Policy at the late 1981[15], in which “east” in this term was referring to Hong Kong, South Korea and most importantly Japan. Mahathir idiosyncrasies that he admire the diligent, loyalty and perseverance of the Japanese people working ethics and their ability of transforming the Japanese agriculture into a modernised and industrialized state within one generation, had draw Mahathir interest in learning from the Japanese. Beside that Look East Policy could also overcome the Chinese economic hegemony by setting up Malay-Japanese privatized heavy industry. All these had fitted well in the development of the NEP, and again the Look East Policy was never discussed thoroughly in the cabinet or party[16]. Bureaucrat in Malaysia Foreign Affairs was now wholly manipulated by the premier himself[17]. from normal course of Malaysian Foreign Policy alignment.
3.0 Contradiction in Third World Spokemanship
During the time of the previous Prime Minister, third world spokemanship was never an policy which Malaysia will adopt, due to the reason that Malaysia both in economy and security was heavily depended on the western nation in which speaking on behalf of the third world where it may hurting the relationship with the west was never an option for MFA bureaucrats. Malaysia shift it’s policy from pro-west to non-align was mainly due to the reason that Malaysia can’t rely on British in Malaysia national security, as being explain above. Third world spokemanship was actually a very risky in the stand point view of formal MFA bureaucrats. First, the success of Malaysia initiative is low. Secondly, the return of such initiative is low. Third, Malaysia itself desired to be a rich nations club that it is so readily criticized. In which the bureaucrats think that the policy is much unfruitful to the nations[18]. After the cold war when the Soviet Union Communism was collapse, the world was no longer to be bipolar. The existence of the Non-alignment Movement was now seems unnecessary because there is no contrast great power to non alignment to. Mahathir had taken this situation of vacuum that exist in the Non-alignment Movement by taking control its leadership role in NAM steering it in the desired direction. Mahathir had used this opportunity to become spokesman for the third world nation lifting the image of Malaysia status among the developing countries as the “voices of the poor”, in which later had provided Malaysia entrepreneur the opportunity for investment. For example, in anti-Western States Iran Petronas had took up a 30 percent Iranian oil project, despite a US law that penalized foreign companies that did business with the Islamic republic[19].
4.0 Contradiction in Regional Engagement
Previous Prime Minister Bureaucracy main objective of engaging in regional engagement through ASEAN is to maintaining political independence and protecting territorial integrity by practicing neutrality in cold war issue and non-interference in respecting territorial integrity and political sovereignty of other nations. During the Kuala Lumpur Declaration, ASEAN was declared as the Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality in 1971, that gain guarantee from the three big powers of China, America and the Soviet Union, as noted by Tun Razak in his speech to the ASEAN ministers[20].
During the Mahathir period, ASEAN was still was one of the main vehicle to guarantee regional security in South East Asia, in which Malaysia contribute wholly in restoring peace and security in the issue of Kampuchea with the help of ASEAN, by setting up Coalition Government of Cambodia in Kuala Lumpur. During the period of Mahahir, Singapore by that time was having massive armament with its Allies of the United State and China on the other hand was having territorial dispute over the island of Spartly in which Malaysia fear that China will use military to claim the possession of it. In overcoming both of this threat Malaysia had joined the ARF to retain regional security in the case of threat from Singapore and contain Chinese government ambition to use force in the matter of Spartly Island. Mahathir policy in regional engagement started to deviate from normal alignment of security issue in which he started to think that regional engagement was actually beneficial for Malaysia economy where we need market for our production. Especially in the case of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar, Mahathir knew that these nations was eager to enter the ASEAN region for various interest reasons[21]. Mahathir had used this opportunity pushing for their inclusion in ASEAN in the hope that Malaysia business could enter the market of these nations, in which the strategy works[22]. Mahathir sees these new market as the new market in which Malaysia could place investment in it, and Mahathir which these new market could be isolated from the west and he proposed a Japanese lead EAEG that will lower the protectionist barriers in the ASEAN region opposing the already established US-lead APEC. EAEG was met with protest from within and out of ASEAN. Mahathir idiosyncrasies play a major role in here where he saw APEC as a US dominate hegemony. Mahathir prefer EAEG in which he believe that Japanese will protect Malaysia interest which brought about by the Look east Policy. Mahathir proposal for EAEG was also due to the reason that he wants to reduce globalization effect of US-hegemony in APEC by using regionalism in EAEG that will better benefit the developing countries that needed to protect their product and infant industries.
5.0 Contradiction in Islamic Posturing
Malaysia had long established its relationship with the Islamic nations and began to perceive itself as an Islamic nation in the international arena. One of the objectives of MFA bureaucracy in 1970-1975 is to promote international Muslim causes by supporting it [23]for example on the issue of Palestinian. In the year 1971, Tun Abdul Razak had proclaimed Islamic solidarity in his speech in the Fifth Islamic Conference of Foreign Minister[24]. In the perspective of MFA bureaucrat the Muslim solidarity serve as a medium range interest rather than long term interest due geographical reason that distant Malaysia from the Middle Eastern Muslim hub. The benefit of such relationship was that Malaysia was able to invest and cooperate with the Arab world on a number of aspects in culture, science, technical and economy[25]. During the oil crisis in 1973, Malaysia is one of the countries that exempted from oil cutbacks[26].
During the period of Mahathir, the country was undergoing a series of modernization, where some of the peasant class conservative Malays Muslim that live in rural area will perceive Mahathir agenda as un-islamic. Mahathir regime was on the continous fire of Malaysia Islamic Party (PAS). MFP had provided Mahathir the mechanism it need in international arena to promote Islam solidarity internationally and used it as a weapon to counter PAS allegation at home[27]. Mahathir relationship with the contemporary Islamic issue was mere rhetoric that never transforms or in the some case limited action. Islamic country was never a priority in MFA[28]. After the September 11, during the period of anti-terrorism, Mahathir had link PAS with Taliban, and spread propaganda that Malaysia will resort to Taliban radicalism if PAS took power of the government. These allegations had caused others parties that alliances with it to fell apart due to pressure from members to dissociate with it, causing the biggest win to Mahathir regime.
6.0 Contradiction in Commercial and Developmental Diplomacy
During the period from Tunku Abdul Rahman to Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia objective in development and trade didn’t change much that is promoting economic development that include industrialization, rural development, commercial development and the stabilization of primary commodity products. Malaysia foreign policy during that time supported the Laissez-faire kind of free trade which Malaysia had provided foreign direct investor a good investment environment and aligning itself towards the third world nations by joining G77[29] in the effort in stabilizing primary goods prices and opposing tariff grouping against the third world. Malaysia also supported the trade grouping and tries to expand their trade relationship by negotiating trade agreement with countries from all over the world[30]. During the year 1970, MFA in trade and development policy had deviate a little. Now their main policy had included in Economic Nationalism where it seek national control in resources and economy. This is where Petronas was established. This is mainly to increase the equity of Malay according to the NEP.
During Mahathir period, he had differentiated himself from the previous Prime Minister that he is using Malaysian diplomacy to open doors in foreign markets[31]. Beside from that he had expanded four others bureaucracies namely MITI, MIDA, Matrade and IDFR in MFA economic division. He also work very closely with the Minister of International and Trade Rafidah Aziz in which both of them have hands on approach of Malaysia foreign trade in identifying markets, conducting visits abroad. During his period of time, he had encouraged privatization and heavy industry policies that facilitate foreign investment in Malaysia. During his period of time Malaysia was starting to have direct investment mainly in the Third world and former communist states.
7.0 Conclusion
Malaysian Foreign Policy which changed from its normal alignment bureaucratic discourse during Mahathir period was a success or not is covered with much controversy. One of the most controversy policy of Mahathir is the Look East Policy that the MFA would never thought of such foreign policy will ever be formulated. The policy was come by the premier himself. Some scholars will say the policy was a failure, limited success or success greatly. For me personally, I think that the Look East Policy itself was a good policy what went wrong with the policy is the project under it, and one of them is our national car project Proton. In which I support whole heartedly that the project was a failure, where the company is losing money and until now there is limited technology transfer to Malaysia engineering. This is maybe the biggest failure of Mahathir idiosyncrasy. But undeniable under the Look East Policy Japanese entrepreneur had injected large amount of investment in Malaysia and during the 1997 and 1998 Asian Financial Crisis, Malaysia is one of the most important investment market for the Japanese that make us the recipient of the $2bilion Miyazawa initiative, that enable us not to kow-tow to the IMF, saving our economy from total destruction. For me, Malaysia have the human capabilities to develop this countries, the problem is that mostly the student from overseas want to work overseas due to the low salary in Malaysia. But this is the policy of the government to keep Malaysian salary to be low, in order to be competitive in luring foreign investor that will create more jobs. So is Malaysia foreign policy under the influence of Mahathir idiosyncrasy a success or failure? It depends on which perspective scholars are looking at it. But one thing for sure, Malaysia had modernised a lot under his rule.
Bibliography
Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Federation of Malaya on External defence and Mutual Assistance, signed at Kuala Lumpur, on 12 October, 1957. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer 1957.
ASEAN secretariat web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from http://www.aseansec.org/
CIA fact book. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html
Commonwealth Secretariat website. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.thecommonwealth.org/subhomepage/151236/
Wikipedia. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War.
G77 web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.g77.org/doc/.
J. Saravanamuttu. (1983). The Dilemma of Independence: Two Decades of Malaysia’s Foreign Policy, 1957-1977. Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Karminder Dhillon Singh. (2005). Malaysian foreign policy in the Mahathir era, 1981-2003. Arbor : UMI. Pg 273.
Mohamad Yusof Ahmad. (1990) Continuity and Change in Malaysia’s Foreign Policy 1981-1986. (pg 351-352). Ann Arbor : UMI, 1990.
New Economy Policy web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.epu.jpm.my/new%20folder/development%20policies/cont%20key%20policies/NEP.htm
Non alignment Movement web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.nam.gov.za/background/background.htm.
Prime Minister of Malaysia website. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.primeministersofmalaysia.net/1.php
[1]CIA fact book. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html. Malaysia is located within the South East Asia region. It has a population of 24million. Malaysia have a very diverse culture from different ethnicity, with Malay 55%, Chinese 30 , Indian 10% and others 5%. It has a GDP of 5.7% growth rate during the year 2007. Mostly the citizen is Muslim. Malaysia practices parliamentary democracy system with a constitution monarchy.
[2] Prime Minister of Malaysia website. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.primeministersofmalaysia.net/1.php. Tunku Abdul Rahman is the first Prime Minister of Malaysia, that lead Malaya into independence on the 31 August 1957. He was also the second chairman of United Malay National Organization. Graduated from Cambridge University in Law He had proposed for the enlargement of the Malayan federation inclusive of Singapore, Sabah and Sawarak, in which on the 16 September 1963. Three of the State had joined into the Malayan federation which by then changed it’s name into Malaysia. The Tunku biggest achievement in international arena is the setting up of Organizations of the Islamic Conference (OIC) where he is the first Secretary General. Tunku was also famous for his pro-west and anti-communist policy.
[3] Commonwealth Secretariat website. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.thecommonwealth.org/subhomepage/151236/ . The Commonwealth is a voluntary association that consists 53 sovereign members states consulting and co-operating in the common interests of their peoples and in the promotion of international understanding and world peace. The Commonwealth does not posses any constitution or charter, but members are committed to themselves to the statements of beliefs set out by Heads of Government. The basis of these is the Declaration of Commonwealth Principles, agreed at Singapore in 1971, and reaffirmed in the Harare Declaration of 1991. The fundamental political values underpinning the Commonwealth include democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, the rule of law, and sustainable economic and social development.
[4] Op.cit 1. Britain was the former colonial power over Malaya. It was located in the region of Europe. Once it is the most powerful country in the world that control a lot of colony located in every corner of the world.
[5]. Op.cit 1. China it’s a communist state, that currently consists of 1.3 billion people. It is one of the most populated countries in the whole world. China's economy now practiced a more market-oriented economy that has a rapidly growing private sector and is a major player in the global economy. China in 2007 stood as the second-largest economy in the world after the US. During 2006 annual inflows of foreign direct investment had rose to $63 billion.
[6] Wikipedia. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War. Vietnam war was a war that was fought between the democratic Republic of Vietnam which form the Northern side of Vietnam that was supported by the Chinese and Soviet Union Communist and the Republic of Vietnam that form the Southern side of Vietnam that was supported by the Americans. The country was unified with the defeating of the South by the North.
[7] ASEAN secretariat web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from http://www.aseansec.org/ The Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok by the five original Member Countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Now it’s membership was inclusive of Brunei Darussalam, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Cambodia. it’s main objective is to promote economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and promote regional peace and stability
[8] Non alignment Movement web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.nam.gov.za/background/background.htm. The Non-Aligned Movement(NAM) is a Movement of 115 members representing the interests and priorities of developing countries. The Movement has its origin in the Asia-Africa Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955. During the time of establishment, NAM main objective is to stay neutral between the two superpower of that time that is the Soviet Union Communist and the Democratic American. After the demise of Socialism, NAM had transform it’s objective of political neutral to economy development of the third world nation.
[9] Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Federation of Malaya on External defence and Mutual Assistance, signed at Kuala Lumpur, on 12 October, 1957. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer 1957. In the event of armed attack against any of the territories or forces of the Federation of Malaya or any of the territories or protectorates of the United Kingdom in the Far East or any of the forces of the United Kingdom within any of those territories or protectorates or within the Federation of Malaya, the government of the Federation of Malaya and the United Kingdom undertake to cooperate with each other and will take such action as each considers necessary for the purpose of meeting the situation effectively. see appendix 1. pg 171
[10] J. Saravanamuttu. (1983). The Dilemma of Independence: Two Decades of Malaysia’s Foreign Policy, 1957-1977. Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia. The deterioration of traditional ties exacerbated the general turmoil of foreign policy …… with the separation of Singapore from Malaysia of which British was given little notice. The a cut back in British economic assistance resulting in a Malaysian request for $630 million in defence aid being turned down……British withdrawal was to be effective by 1971 and completed by the mid-1970s
[11] Opcit 7. see appendix 2. explanatory chart od defence and security policy output by bureaucrates. Pg 54
[12] Karminder Dhillon Singh. (2005). Malaysian foreign policy in the Mahathir era, 1981-2003. Arbor : UMI. Pg 273. He[Mahathir] believes he had the answer to Malaysia’s development needs, that he was right, and that he was on the right side of history.
[13]New Economy Policy web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.epu.jpm.my/new%20folder/development%20policies/cont%20key%20policies/NEP.htm The New Economy Policy was launch in the year 1971 in which a government respond to create harmony and unity in a nation with many ethnic and religious groups. Its main strategy is to reduce absolute poverty irrespective of race through raising income levels and increasing employment opportunities for all Malaysians and restructure society to correct economic imbalances so as to reduce and eventually eliminate the identification of race with economic function.
[14] Mohamad Yusof Ahmad. (1990) Continuity and Change in Malaysia’s Foreign Policy 1981-1986. (pg 351-352). Ann Arbor : UMI, 1990. Malaysian diplomat Mohamad Yosof revealed that BBL[Buy British Last] and the Commonwealth Policy were formulated without the consultation with MFA[Malaysia Foreign Affairs], and they ‘ran counter to the wisdom of MFA.’ Deputy premier Musa Hitam has said that BBL I was not debated in the Cabinet. Even though BBL II was announced by the then Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim as a cabinet decision, its origins lay in a Mahathir directives as well.
[15] Op.cit 12.
[16] Op.cit 12. As recorded in the book that there is no record of a cabinet or party level discussion prior to the announcement.
[17] Mohamad Yusof Ahmad ( as stated in Karminder Dhillon Singh, 2005, pg274-275) MFA came to known of the policy after it was made public by Mahathir and its role was reglected to findings ways to rationalizing and undertaking “damage control” measures in response to negative feedback from target audience. Also stated by Saravanamuttu that “[T]he Malaysian government, through its formal and informal machinery, mounted a concerted campaign to publicize and propagate the Look East Policy. The media lapped it up and the bureaucrates scrambled to discover and uncover all manner of ways to implement the Prime Minsiter’s edict. The public was bombarded with an unending barrage of propaganda about “the Japanese miracle” and the need to make the country to ‘Malaysia Inc’.”
[18] Op.cit 12. That some of the regime’s policies outlined in this section were irrational, wasteful , and futile was a view shared by many within the MFA.
[19] Op.cit12. with Malaysia obtaining the status of speaking up for the poor, Malaysia had obtained a lot of investment opportunity from lumber and construction to oil and gold exploration in impoverished countries of Europe, Africa, the America. Others example is a Malaysian firm was granted US$690 in government reconstruction and development plan in Nelson Mendela South Africa after helping him in his political campaign for president. YTL won a multi million dollar housing project, MRC obtained a bid to develop the Samrad Township, and UMNO related company Renong won a billion Ringgit deal to develop the Durban international harbour zone. Malaysian company won all these deals despite substantial lower bid from others international developers.
[20] Address by the prime Minister, Tun Abdul Razak at the Opening of the Eight ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, 13 May, 1975 Siaran Akhbar. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Penerangan. (as stated in J. Saravanamuttu. 1983. pg 96-97.). “The premise of the neutralization proposal is regional and national resilience. Southeast Asia must stand on its own feet. We-individual countries as well as the region as a whole- must be self-reliant if we wish to survive. If a country or a people values its way of life, it must be prepared to defend it against any form of external encroachment. If a people is not prepared to fight in the defence of its sovereignty and its values, it will not survive-indeed it does not deserve to survive. The best defence lies in the people themselves – in their commitment, their will and capacity. This is the premise of the neutrality system as it applies both to individual countries and to the region as a whole. It is not premised on vague hopes and euphoric dreams. It is premised on friendship and goodwill, on an open-minded readiness to co-operate, and patient and perseverance in working out detailed arrangements- and equally on national resilience, on our readiness to fight and defend our values and way of life….this is the meaning of and thrust of the neutrality system…. The key to our future security and stability lies not in outdated and irrelevant attitudes of the cold war , but in imaginative and constructive response to the new realities of today.”
[21] Op.cit 12. reason for Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia to join ASEAN is that they will gain international recognition to indirect access to EU and others western market.
[22] Opcit 12. MFP was able to open the door for Malasian entrepreneur in this bureaucratic red tape market. For example, Petronas, secure large scale contracts in these markets from petroleum exploration to distribution in Vietnam and retailing of petroleum product in Cambodia.
[23] Opcit 10. see ppendix 3. pg 127
[24] Prime Minister Address, Tun Adbul Razak, at the opening ceremony of the Fifth Islamic Conference of Foreign Minister, 21 June 1974, Kuala Lumpur. ( as stated in in J. Saravanamuttu. 1983. pg 124-125.)
[25] Opcit 10
[26] Opcit 10
[27] Opcit 12
[28] Opcit 12
[29] G77 web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.g77.org/doc/.The Group of 77 (G-77) was established on 15 June 1964 by seventy-seven developing countries signatories of the “Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries” issued at the end of the first session of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in Geneva but the organization has since expanded to 130 member countries. it provides a forum for developing countries to promote their collective economic interests and enhance their joint negotiating capacity on major international economic issues within the United Nations system, and promote South-South cooperation for development
[30] Opcit 10. see appendix 4. pg 57
[31] Opcit 12. his policy in third world spokemanship, Islamic posturing, regional engagement, all pay off in form of reverse investment into their market and earning government contracts for their reconstruction and development projects.
Foreign Policy could be defined as the strategies that states are going to used as guidance to their action in the international arena, that comprise of its political, economic, military, and cultural policies reflected externally to the international arena through diplomatic and governmental machinery. Its main function is to defend and promoting the country's national security, economic and other vital national interests. Foreign policies formed are usually affected by individual decision makers, local political, economical and social factors. The foreign policy of a nation has never remain the same over a period of time in history. This is mainly due to the reason of the changing perception of individual policy makers with regard to geopolitical and economic components affecting foreign policy are continually changing.
The nature of Malaysia[1] foreign policy is determined by the various geographical, historical, social and political determinants, which the main national interest of Malaysia is security, economy, internal security and sovereignty. Malaysia foreign policy begins from the day we gain independence. During that time our late Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman[2], established close relationship with the west that have close ties with the commonwealth[3] countries and Britain[4]. Never fail to mention that Tunku Abdul Rahman policy was also anti-communist, where Malaysia during that time does not recognized the People Republic of China[5], and supported the South Vietnamese pro-democracy fraction during the Vietnam War[6]. Later, Malaysia foreign policy had change from pro-west foreign policy to non-alignment, neutralization and peaceful co-existence, after the Indonesia confrontation. Malaysia and other South East Asia countries in the region had set up ASEAN[7], mainly to ensure peace and security in the region and to promote the economic growth of its member countries. During the era of Mahathir premiership, Malaysia foreign policy had undergone a huge and dramatic change from the normal discourse of Malaysia Foreign Policy. Malaysia as an actor in the international arena had become more vocal in issues concerning third world nations. A number of policies were implemented for example Buy British Last Policy, Look East Policy, Third World Spokemanship in Non alignment Movement (NAM)[8], Regional Engagement in ASEAN, Islamic Posturing and Commercial and Development Policy. In this assignment we will discuss all these policy and study how does it departure from normal course of Malaysian Foreign Policy alignment.
2.0 Contradictions in Foreign Policy
During Malayan Independence from the British in the year of 1957, Malaya by that time had only one division of the Malay Royal Regiment, Malaya defence during that time of period does not posses any air force and navy which gave the reason why Tunku Abdul Rahman foreign policy have to be pro-west to secure Malaya national security from external threat during that time of period. Malaya had signed the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement of the year 1957 in which both nation agree to provide military assistant to assists each another when there is an arm conflict. This was stated in the Anglo-Malayan Defence Agreement 1957[9].
Beside from national security, Malaya economy at that time also link very closely with the British, the Malaya economy during that period of time was a primary commodity product country that export raw material for example tin and rubber which was mainly owned and control by foreign British investor. In which as recorded by Tilman in Malaysian Foreign Policy
“At present all the tin dredges, three-quarters of the large rubber estates, almost all the new oil palm estates. Possible two-thirds of Malaysian foreign trade, and much of the secondary industries are in overseas, mainly British, ownership and control.”
Not forget to mention Malaya internal security during that period of time was also facing the threat of communist insurgency under the Malayan Communist Party. Malaya depends on British, Australia and New Zealand troops in countering the communist insurgency. This factor had formulated the Tunku anti-communist policy. Malaysia foreign policy of pro-west and and anti communist started to change after the confrontation following with event such as the expelling of Singapore from Malaysia where British is not consulted. British could no longer support their military presence in Malaysia and started to withdraw at 1971. as noted by J. Saravanamuttu[10]. All these string of event had caused Malaysian not to depend heavily on the west on Malaysia national security, giving way to Malaysia non align, and neutrality policy. Malaysia before the Mahathir period, all foreign policy will have certain kind of influences from the bureaucracies concerning issue of internal social security, external threat, economic[11].
All this have changed during the Tun Dr Mahathir period, Mahathir idiosyncrasies [12]plays an important role in forming the foreign policy of Malaysia, and these policy had distinguish Dr. Mahathir’s Prime Ministership from previous administrations. First of all it’s the Buy British Last policy, which he implemented after two months coming into office, this policy seems a radical change of Malaysian foreign policy, even during the time of non-align, Malaysia depended heavily on the west. This could be explaining by a variety of factors. First, we have to examine and study about Mahathir idiosyncrasies which play the important role in directing Malaysian foreign policy. He had not being educated in British like his predecessors, and perceived Britain as a colonial power. He was also a man that posses Malay and Malaysian nationalism, which would like to reduce British enterprise in Malaysia, and scale back Malay-Chinese joint venture company, implementing the New Economic Policy(NEP)[13]. Beside that external event for example in June 1981, London Metal Exchange changes the rules that cause Malaysia effort to increase the price of tin in the world market to be in vain. Beside that the selling of Guthrie and Dunlop shares to the Multi-Purpose Holdings which was an investment firm of the Chinese based MCA party without the knowledge of the government directly opposing the plan of Mahathir to increase Malay equity under the NEP. This had prompt Mahathir to initiate Buy British Last Policy. Mahathir had never consulted the foreign affair bureaucracies on the Buy British Last Policy[14].
Beside from that Mahathir had proclaimed the Look East Policy at the late 1981[15], in which “east” in this term was referring to Hong Kong, South Korea and most importantly Japan. Mahathir idiosyncrasies that he admire the diligent, loyalty and perseverance of the Japanese people working ethics and their ability of transforming the Japanese agriculture into a modernised and industrialized state within one generation, had draw Mahathir interest in learning from the Japanese. Beside that Look East Policy could also overcome the Chinese economic hegemony by setting up Malay-Japanese privatized heavy industry. All these had fitted well in the development of the NEP, and again the Look East Policy was never discussed thoroughly in the cabinet or party[16]. Bureaucrat in Malaysia Foreign Affairs was now wholly manipulated by the premier himself[17]. from normal course of Malaysian Foreign Policy alignment.
3.0 Contradiction in Third World Spokemanship
During the time of the previous Prime Minister, third world spokemanship was never an policy which Malaysia will adopt, due to the reason that Malaysia both in economy and security was heavily depended on the western nation in which speaking on behalf of the third world where it may hurting the relationship with the west was never an option for MFA bureaucrats. Malaysia shift it’s policy from pro-west to non-align was mainly due to the reason that Malaysia can’t rely on British in Malaysia national security, as being explain above. Third world spokemanship was actually a very risky in the stand point view of formal MFA bureaucrats. First, the success of Malaysia initiative is low. Secondly, the return of such initiative is low. Third, Malaysia itself desired to be a rich nations club that it is so readily criticized. In which the bureaucrats think that the policy is much unfruitful to the nations[18]. After the cold war when the Soviet Union Communism was collapse, the world was no longer to be bipolar. The existence of the Non-alignment Movement was now seems unnecessary because there is no contrast great power to non alignment to. Mahathir had taken this situation of vacuum that exist in the Non-alignment Movement by taking control its leadership role in NAM steering it in the desired direction. Mahathir had used this opportunity to become spokesman for the third world nation lifting the image of Malaysia status among the developing countries as the “voices of the poor”, in which later had provided Malaysia entrepreneur the opportunity for investment. For example, in anti-Western States Iran Petronas had took up a 30 percent Iranian oil project, despite a US law that penalized foreign companies that did business with the Islamic republic[19].
4.0 Contradiction in Regional Engagement
Previous Prime Minister Bureaucracy main objective of engaging in regional engagement through ASEAN is to maintaining political independence and protecting territorial integrity by practicing neutrality in cold war issue and non-interference in respecting territorial integrity and political sovereignty of other nations. During the Kuala Lumpur Declaration, ASEAN was declared as the Zone of Peace, Freedom and Neutrality in 1971, that gain guarantee from the three big powers of China, America and the Soviet Union, as noted by Tun Razak in his speech to the ASEAN ministers[20].
During the Mahathir period, ASEAN was still was one of the main vehicle to guarantee regional security in South East Asia, in which Malaysia contribute wholly in restoring peace and security in the issue of Kampuchea with the help of ASEAN, by setting up Coalition Government of Cambodia in Kuala Lumpur. During the period of Mahahir, Singapore by that time was having massive armament with its Allies of the United State and China on the other hand was having territorial dispute over the island of Spartly in which Malaysia fear that China will use military to claim the possession of it. In overcoming both of this threat Malaysia had joined the ARF to retain regional security in the case of threat from Singapore and contain Chinese government ambition to use force in the matter of Spartly Island. Mahathir policy in regional engagement started to deviate from normal alignment of security issue in which he started to think that regional engagement was actually beneficial for Malaysia economy where we need market for our production. Especially in the case of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar, Mahathir knew that these nations was eager to enter the ASEAN region for various interest reasons[21]. Mahathir had used this opportunity pushing for their inclusion in ASEAN in the hope that Malaysia business could enter the market of these nations, in which the strategy works[22]. Mahathir sees these new market as the new market in which Malaysia could place investment in it, and Mahathir which these new market could be isolated from the west and he proposed a Japanese lead EAEG that will lower the protectionist barriers in the ASEAN region opposing the already established US-lead APEC. EAEG was met with protest from within and out of ASEAN. Mahathir idiosyncrasies play a major role in here where he saw APEC as a US dominate hegemony. Mahathir prefer EAEG in which he believe that Japanese will protect Malaysia interest which brought about by the Look east Policy. Mahathir proposal for EAEG was also due to the reason that he wants to reduce globalization effect of US-hegemony in APEC by using regionalism in EAEG that will better benefit the developing countries that needed to protect their product and infant industries.
5.0 Contradiction in Islamic Posturing
Malaysia had long established its relationship with the Islamic nations and began to perceive itself as an Islamic nation in the international arena. One of the objectives of MFA bureaucracy in 1970-1975 is to promote international Muslim causes by supporting it [23]for example on the issue of Palestinian. In the year 1971, Tun Abdul Razak had proclaimed Islamic solidarity in his speech in the Fifth Islamic Conference of Foreign Minister[24]. In the perspective of MFA bureaucrat the Muslim solidarity serve as a medium range interest rather than long term interest due geographical reason that distant Malaysia from the Middle Eastern Muslim hub. The benefit of such relationship was that Malaysia was able to invest and cooperate with the Arab world on a number of aspects in culture, science, technical and economy[25]. During the oil crisis in 1973, Malaysia is one of the countries that exempted from oil cutbacks[26].
During the period of Mahathir, the country was undergoing a series of modernization, where some of the peasant class conservative Malays Muslim that live in rural area will perceive Mahathir agenda as un-islamic. Mahathir regime was on the continous fire of Malaysia Islamic Party (PAS). MFP had provided Mahathir the mechanism it need in international arena to promote Islam solidarity internationally and used it as a weapon to counter PAS allegation at home[27]. Mahathir relationship with the contemporary Islamic issue was mere rhetoric that never transforms or in the some case limited action. Islamic country was never a priority in MFA[28]. After the September 11, during the period of anti-terrorism, Mahathir had link PAS with Taliban, and spread propaganda that Malaysia will resort to Taliban radicalism if PAS took power of the government. These allegations had caused others parties that alliances with it to fell apart due to pressure from members to dissociate with it, causing the biggest win to Mahathir regime.
6.0 Contradiction in Commercial and Developmental Diplomacy
During the period from Tunku Abdul Rahman to Tun Hussein Onn, Malaysia objective in development and trade didn’t change much that is promoting economic development that include industrialization, rural development, commercial development and the stabilization of primary commodity products. Malaysia foreign policy during that time supported the Laissez-faire kind of free trade which Malaysia had provided foreign direct investor a good investment environment and aligning itself towards the third world nations by joining G77[29] in the effort in stabilizing primary goods prices and opposing tariff grouping against the third world. Malaysia also supported the trade grouping and tries to expand their trade relationship by negotiating trade agreement with countries from all over the world[30]. During the year 1970, MFA in trade and development policy had deviate a little. Now their main policy had included in Economic Nationalism where it seek national control in resources and economy. This is where Petronas was established. This is mainly to increase the equity of Malay according to the NEP.
During Mahathir period, he had differentiated himself from the previous Prime Minister that he is using Malaysian diplomacy to open doors in foreign markets[31]. Beside from that he had expanded four others bureaucracies namely MITI, MIDA, Matrade and IDFR in MFA economic division. He also work very closely with the Minister of International and Trade Rafidah Aziz in which both of them have hands on approach of Malaysia foreign trade in identifying markets, conducting visits abroad. During his period of time, he had encouraged privatization and heavy industry policies that facilitate foreign investment in Malaysia. During his period of time Malaysia was starting to have direct investment mainly in the Third world and former communist states.
7.0 Conclusion
Malaysian Foreign Policy which changed from its normal alignment bureaucratic discourse during Mahathir period was a success or not is covered with much controversy. One of the most controversy policy of Mahathir is the Look East Policy that the MFA would never thought of such foreign policy will ever be formulated. The policy was come by the premier himself. Some scholars will say the policy was a failure, limited success or success greatly. For me personally, I think that the Look East Policy itself was a good policy what went wrong with the policy is the project under it, and one of them is our national car project Proton. In which I support whole heartedly that the project was a failure, where the company is losing money and until now there is limited technology transfer to Malaysia engineering. This is maybe the biggest failure of Mahathir idiosyncrasy. But undeniable under the Look East Policy Japanese entrepreneur had injected large amount of investment in Malaysia and during the 1997 and 1998 Asian Financial Crisis, Malaysia is one of the most important investment market for the Japanese that make us the recipient of the $2bilion Miyazawa initiative, that enable us not to kow-tow to the IMF, saving our economy from total destruction. For me, Malaysia have the human capabilities to develop this countries, the problem is that mostly the student from overseas want to work overseas due to the low salary in Malaysia. But this is the policy of the government to keep Malaysian salary to be low, in order to be competitive in luring foreign investor that will create more jobs. So is Malaysia foreign policy under the influence of Mahathir idiosyncrasy a success or failure? It depends on which perspective scholars are looking at it. But one thing for sure, Malaysia had modernised a lot under his rule.
Bibliography
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[1]CIA fact book. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html. Malaysia is located within the South East Asia region. It has a population of 24million. Malaysia have a very diverse culture from different ethnicity, with Malay 55%, Chinese 30 , Indian 10% and others 5%. It has a GDP of 5.7% growth rate during the year 2007. Mostly the citizen is Muslim. Malaysia practices parliamentary democracy system with a constitution monarchy.
[2] Prime Minister of Malaysia website. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.primeministersofmalaysia.net/1.php. Tunku Abdul Rahman is the first Prime Minister of Malaysia, that lead Malaya into independence on the 31 August 1957. He was also the second chairman of United Malay National Organization. Graduated from Cambridge University in Law He had proposed for the enlargement of the Malayan federation inclusive of Singapore, Sabah and Sawarak, in which on the 16 September 1963. Three of the State had joined into the Malayan federation which by then changed it’s name into Malaysia. The Tunku biggest achievement in international arena is the setting up of Organizations of the Islamic Conference (OIC) where he is the first Secretary General. Tunku was also famous for his pro-west and anti-communist policy.
[3] Commonwealth Secretariat website. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.thecommonwealth.org/subhomepage/151236/ . The Commonwealth is a voluntary association that consists 53 sovereign members states consulting and co-operating in the common interests of their peoples and in the promotion of international understanding and world peace. The Commonwealth does not posses any constitution or charter, but members are committed to themselves to the statements of beliefs set out by Heads of Government. The basis of these is the Declaration of Commonwealth Principles, agreed at Singapore in 1971, and reaffirmed in the Harare Declaration of 1991. The fundamental political values underpinning the Commonwealth include democracy and good governance, respect for human rights and gender equality, the rule of law, and sustainable economic and social development.
[4] Op.cit 1. Britain was the former colonial power over Malaya. It was located in the region of Europe. Once it is the most powerful country in the world that control a lot of colony located in every corner of the world.
[5]. Op.cit 1. China it’s a communist state, that currently consists of 1.3 billion people. It is one of the most populated countries in the whole world. China's economy now practiced a more market-oriented economy that has a rapidly growing private sector and is a major player in the global economy. China in 2007 stood as the second-largest economy in the world after the US. During 2006 annual inflows of foreign direct investment had rose to $63 billion.
[6] Wikipedia. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War. Vietnam war was a war that was fought between the democratic Republic of Vietnam which form the Northern side of Vietnam that was supported by the Chinese and Soviet Union Communist and the Republic of Vietnam that form the Southern side of Vietnam that was supported by the Americans. The country was unified with the defeating of the South by the North.
[7] ASEAN secretariat web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008,from http://www.aseansec.org/ The Association of Southeast Asian Nations or ASEAN was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok by the five original Member Countries, namely, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand. Now it’s membership was inclusive of Brunei Darussalam, Lao PDR, Myanmar and Cambodia. it’s main objective is to promote economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region and promote regional peace and stability
[8] Non alignment Movement web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.nam.gov.za/background/background.htm. The Non-Aligned Movement(NAM) is a Movement of 115 members representing the interests and priorities of developing countries. The Movement has its origin in the Asia-Africa Conference held in Bandung, Indonesia in 1955. During the time of establishment, NAM main objective is to stay neutral between the two superpower of that time that is the Soviet Union Communist and the Democratic American. After the demise of Socialism, NAM had transform it’s objective of political neutral to economy development of the third world nation.
[9] Agreement between the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the Federation of Malaya on External defence and Mutual Assistance, signed at Kuala Lumpur, on 12 October, 1957. Kuala Lumpur: Government Printer 1957. In the event of armed attack against any of the territories or forces of the Federation of Malaya or any of the territories or protectorates of the United Kingdom in the Far East or any of the forces of the United Kingdom within any of those territories or protectorates or within the Federation of Malaya, the government of the Federation of Malaya and the United Kingdom undertake to cooperate with each other and will take such action as each considers necessary for the purpose of meeting the situation effectively. see appendix 1. pg 171
[10] J. Saravanamuttu. (1983). The Dilemma of Independence: Two Decades of Malaysia’s Foreign Policy, 1957-1977. Penang: Penerbit Universiti Sains Malaysia. The deterioration of traditional ties exacerbated the general turmoil of foreign policy …… with the separation of Singapore from Malaysia of which British was given little notice. The a cut back in British economic assistance resulting in a Malaysian request for $630 million in defence aid being turned down……British withdrawal was to be effective by 1971 and completed by the mid-1970s
[11] Opcit 7. see appendix 2. explanatory chart od defence and security policy output by bureaucrates. Pg 54
[12] Karminder Dhillon Singh. (2005). Malaysian foreign policy in the Mahathir era, 1981-2003. Arbor : UMI. Pg 273. He[Mahathir] believes he had the answer to Malaysia’s development needs, that he was right, and that he was on the right side of history.
[13]New Economy Policy web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.epu.jpm.my/new%20folder/development%20policies/cont%20key%20policies/NEP.htm The New Economy Policy was launch in the year 1971 in which a government respond to create harmony and unity in a nation with many ethnic and religious groups. Its main strategy is to reduce absolute poverty irrespective of race through raising income levels and increasing employment opportunities for all Malaysians and restructure society to correct economic imbalances so as to reduce and eventually eliminate the identification of race with economic function.
[14] Mohamad Yusof Ahmad. (1990) Continuity and Change in Malaysia’s Foreign Policy 1981-1986. (pg 351-352). Ann Arbor : UMI, 1990. Malaysian diplomat Mohamad Yosof revealed that BBL[Buy British Last] and the Commonwealth Policy were formulated without the consultation with MFA[Malaysia Foreign Affairs], and they ‘ran counter to the wisdom of MFA.’ Deputy premier Musa Hitam has said that BBL I was not debated in the Cabinet. Even though BBL II was announced by the then Deputy Prime Minister Anwar Ibrahim as a cabinet decision, its origins lay in a Mahathir directives as well.
[15] Op.cit 12.
[16] Op.cit 12. As recorded in the book that there is no record of a cabinet or party level discussion prior to the announcement.
[17] Mohamad Yusof Ahmad ( as stated in Karminder Dhillon Singh, 2005, pg274-275) MFA came to known of the policy after it was made public by Mahathir and its role was reglected to findings ways to rationalizing and undertaking “damage control” measures in response to negative feedback from target audience. Also stated by Saravanamuttu that “[T]he Malaysian government, through its formal and informal machinery, mounted a concerted campaign to publicize and propagate the Look East Policy. The media lapped it up and the bureaucrates scrambled to discover and uncover all manner of ways to implement the Prime Minsiter’s edict. The public was bombarded with an unending barrage of propaganda about “the Japanese miracle” and the need to make the country to ‘Malaysia Inc’.”
[18] Op.cit 12. That some of the regime’s policies outlined in this section were irrational, wasteful , and futile was a view shared by many within the MFA.
[19] Op.cit12. with Malaysia obtaining the status of speaking up for the poor, Malaysia had obtained a lot of investment opportunity from lumber and construction to oil and gold exploration in impoverished countries of Europe, Africa, the America. Others example is a Malaysian firm was granted US$690 in government reconstruction and development plan in Nelson Mendela South Africa after helping him in his political campaign for president. YTL won a multi million dollar housing project, MRC obtained a bid to develop the Samrad Township, and UMNO related company Renong won a billion Ringgit deal to develop the Durban international harbour zone. Malaysian company won all these deals despite substantial lower bid from others international developers.
[20] Address by the prime Minister, Tun Abdul Razak at the Opening of the Eight ASEAN Ministerial Meeting, 13 May, 1975 Siaran Akhbar. Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Penerangan. (as stated in J. Saravanamuttu. 1983. pg 96-97.). “The premise of the neutralization proposal is regional and national resilience. Southeast Asia must stand on its own feet. We-individual countries as well as the region as a whole- must be self-reliant if we wish to survive. If a country or a people values its way of life, it must be prepared to defend it against any form of external encroachment. If a people is not prepared to fight in the defence of its sovereignty and its values, it will not survive-indeed it does not deserve to survive. The best defence lies in the people themselves – in their commitment, their will and capacity. This is the premise of the neutrality system as it applies both to individual countries and to the region as a whole. It is not premised on vague hopes and euphoric dreams. It is premised on friendship and goodwill, on an open-minded readiness to co-operate, and patient and perseverance in working out detailed arrangements- and equally on national resilience, on our readiness to fight and defend our values and way of life….this is the meaning of and thrust of the neutrality system…. The key to our future security and stability lies not in outdated and irrelevant attitudes of the cold war , but in imaginative and constructive response to the new realities of today.”
[21] Op.cit 12. reason for Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia to join ASEAN is that they will gain international recognition to indirect access to EU and others western market.
[22] Opcit 12. MFP was able to open the door for Malasian entrepreneur in this bureaucratic red tape market. For example, Petronas, secure large scale contracts in these markets from petroleum exploration to distribution in Vietnam and retailing of petroleum product in Cambodia.
[23] Opcit 10. see ppendix 3. pg 127
[24] Prime Minister Address, Tun Adbul Razak, at the opening ceremony of the Fifth Islamic Conference of Foreign Minister, 21 June 1974, Kuala Lumpur. ( as stated in in J. Saravanamuttu. 1983. pg 124-125.)
[25] Opcit 10
[26] Opcit 10
[27] Opcit 12
[28] Opcit 12
[29] G77 web site. (n.d). Retrieved February 20, 2008, from http://www.g77.org/doc/.The Group of 77 (G-77) was established on 15 June 1964 by seventy-seven developing countries signatories of the “Joint Declaration of the Seventy-Seven Countries” issued at the end of the first session of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in Geneva but the organization has since expanded to 130 member countries. it provides a forum for developing countries to promote their collective economic interests and enhance their joint negotiating capacity on major international economic issues within the United Nations system, and promote South-South cooperation for development
[30] Opcit 10. see appendix 4. pg 57
[31] Opcit 12. his policy in third world spokemanship, Islamic posturing, regional engagement, all pay off in form of reverse investment into their market and earning government contracts for their reconstruction and development projects.
